Scope of marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Scope of marketing - Essay Example See graph l Graph I When price is increased, seller would want to sell more because it will be more profitable. However we will find that consumer will buy less because in the increase in price. Consumer may look for substitute product for bread which could be cheaper. While the demand curve goes downward when the price goes up, the reverse happens with the supply curve. In the diagram left, let us take for example that price of bread goes further higher from $3 to $4, the seller will be more than willing to sell at a higher price because it will be more profitable but as shown above demand for the product is low. The effect to seller and employment. The seller cannot afford to sell at lower price because it will incur losses. At this point, the seller will think of ways to cut on the cost of production. One of these is to reduce the number of personnel employed in the bakery. If the reduction of employment happens to all the bakeries in the country, the magnitude of unemployment wil l be another problem of the economy. How to increase demand. If the price increase is inevitable, there are ways to increase demand for the product. One way is to do a little market in tricks. A bakery in our place created the interest of customers when it announced a big sales discount on breads before closing the store. It may also work if you use catchy phrases like â€Å"limited supply only†, or perhaps by extending extra services to customers. Things may work well if you sell the brand to customers to gain loyalty. Emphasize on the convenience of eating bread because you can take bread anywhere like making it into sandwiches and eat it as against rice that needs a setting first. 2. The marketing of the product becomes difficult even when there is enough supply because of some factors, such as consumer preferences and expectations. Let us remember that there are available substitutes for the product, and so when the price of bread becomes too high, consumer will think of ways to economize, for example, rice or cereals for breakfast. Substitute goods can be used in place of another, corn or beans perhaps. And maybe the best argument for this is the price. The price is the best indicator for demand. Their demand for bread decreases because consumers economize on their consumption. 3. Potential market. Potential market is a set of consumers who have expressed a desire for the product or market offer. Potential market means a set of consumers who profess some level of interest in a designed market offer. (Lake, Laura n.d. ) Available market. It is differentiated from potential market, because available market means potential costumers qualified on the basis of his/her buying authority, and willingness to buy. By this we make a segmentation of consumers by classifying them into income groups. Target market. Target market has similarity of approach with available market because here, the marketer focuses on a specific market. But the difference is that th e marketer does not exclude people who do not fit into the criteria from buying the product. . For example, our company could choose to market to homeowners between the ages of 35-65 with incomes of $150,000+ in certain area in California. To classify the market further, the company could choose homeowners who are renting, or do not own a house and lot. When we have a defined market, it is easier to market the company ,for example, in defining our target market, we will take into consideration not only those who have the need for the condominium but

What patriotism mean to me Essay Example for Free

What patriotism mean to me Essay Loading Older Messages (11) Sunday Antahlia Napier 10/13, 9:08pm Antahlia Napier yea Monday Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/14, 5:01pm Nate Young Migo Thompson Wyd Antahlia Napier 10/14, 5:09pm Antahlia Napier chillen now Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/14, 5:15pm Nate Young Migo Thompson In woodland? Antahlia Napier 10/14, 5:15pm Antahlia Napier yea im in da house Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/14, 5:16pm Nate Young Migo Thompson Who Im woodland *in Antahlia Napier 10/14, 5:16pm Antahlia Napier ion no im in the HOUSE Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/14, 5:20pm Nate Young Migo Thompson Lol who was out there Antahlia Napier 10/14, 5:26pm Antahlia Napier i dont no i seen jarmed them when i was oming home like and hour ago but ion no i dont go outside so idk Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/14, 5:43pm Nate Young Migo Thompson If i come out there yhu gone come out lol Antahlia Napier 10/14, 5:43pm Antahlia Napier im fiinna come out there well nvm yea ill come out Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/14, 5:45pm Nate Young Migo Thompson Where to? Where you gone be? Antahlia Napier 10/14, 5:45pm Antahlia Napier Da pool Nobody there anyways Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/14, 5:46pm Nate Young Migo Thompson Meet me where we use to be? Antahlia Napier 10/14, 5:48pm Antahlia Napier and where is tt u dont even be doing nunthing anyways so what we meeting for? Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/14, 5:50pm Nate Young Migo Thompson Oh well never mind then if you dont want to Tuesday Nate Young Migo Thompson 10/15, 5:23pm Nate Young Migo Thompson Aye Today Antahlia Napier 5:03am Antahlia Napier Wessuhhpp? Nate Young Migo Thompson 5:04am Nate Young Migo Thompson Wyd today

Models of Celebrity Endorsement Strategy

Models of Celebrity Endorsement Strategy The selection of celebrity endorsers is not an easy task; many scholars have tried to create models in order to help for the right selecting of celebrity endorsers. Hovland et al (1953) conceptually contributed one of the earliest models, which is Source Credibility Model. Afterwords, the Source Attractiveness Model (McGuire, 1985), the Product Match-Up Hypothesis (Forkan, 1980; Kamins, 1989, 1990), and the Meaning Transfer Model (McCracken, 1989) was presented through empirically researchers in turn. The Source Credibility Model and Source Attractiveness Model are categorized under the generic name of Source Models since these two models basically show and reflect research of the Social Influence Theory/Source Effect Theory, which argues that various characteristics of a perceived communication source may have a beneficial effect on message receptivity (Kelman, 1961; Meenaghan, 1995). The source credibility model is based on research in social psychology (Hovland and Weiss, 1951-1952; Hovland, Jani, and Kelley, 1953). The Hovland version of model present that a message depends for its effectiveness on the expertness and trustworthiness of the source (Hovland et al., 1953, p.20; Dholakia and Sternthal, 1977; Sternthal, Dholakia, and Leavitt, 1978), which means that information from a credible source (e.g.celebrity) can influence beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and/or behavior via a process called internalization, which occurs when receivers accept a source influence in terms of their personal attitude and value structures (Erdogan, 1999). Expertness is defined as the extent to which a communicator is perceived to be a source of valid assertions and refers to the knowledge, experience or skills possessed by an endorser. Hovland et al (1953) and Ohanian (1991) believed that it does not really matter whether an endorser is an expert, but all that matters is how the target audience perceives the endorser. However, Aaker and Myers (1987) advocated a source/celebrity that is more expert to be more persuasive and to generate more intentions to buy the brand (Ohanian, 1991). Hence, expert sources influence perceptions of the products quality (Erdogan, 1999). Meanwhile; Speck et al (1988) found that expert celebrities produced higher recall of product information than non-expert celebrities, even though the difference was not statistically significant. Moreover, celebrities professional accomplishments and expertise may serve as a logical connection with the products, and consequently make the endorsement more believable to co nsumers (Till and Brusler, 2000). Trustworthiness refers to the honesty, integrity and believability of an endorser depending on target audience perceptions (Erdogan, 1999). Advertisers capitalize on the value of trustworthiness by selecting endorsers, who are widely regarded as honest, believable, and dependable (Shimp, 1997). Smith (1973) argues that consumers view untrustworthy celebrity endorsers as questionable message sources regardless of their qualities. Friedman, et al (1978) addressed that trustworthiness is the major determinant of source credibility and then tried to discover that likability was the most important attribute of trust. Thus, they recommended advertisers to select personalities who are well liked when a trustworthy celebrity is desired to endorse brands. However, Ohanian (1991) found that trustworthiness of a celebrity was not significant related to customers intentions to buy an endorsed ethnic status could affect endorser trustworthiness and brand attitudes, because people trust endorsers who are similar to them. Their findings implied that when targeting particular ethnic groups such as Africans and Asians, ethnic background should be carefully evaluated. Measuring source credibility in selecting celebrity It is quite reasonable to make sense that a sources credibility is totally subjective, but research shows that in spite of individual preferences, a high degree of agreement exists among individuals (Berscheid et al, 1971). Patzer (1983) developed the Truth-of-Consensus method to assess a sources credibility and attractiveness. The method is based on the foundation that individuals judgments of attractiveness and credibility are naturally subjective, but these judgments are shaped through Gestalt principles of person perception rather than single characteristics. Notably, on the basis of extensive literature review and statistical tests, Ohanian (1990) constructed a tri- component celebrity endorser credibility scale, (see figure) which assumes that credibility and effectiveness of celebrity endorsers is associated with given characteristic dimensions, even though McCracken (1989) argued that the celebrity world consists of much more just attractive and credible individuals. Table 2: Source Credibility Scale Attractiveness Trustworthiness Expertise Attractive-Unattractive Trustworthy-Untrustworthy Expert-Not Expert Classy-Not Classy Dependable-Undependable Experience-Inexperienced Beautiful-Ugly Honest-Dishonest Knowledgeable-Unknowledgeable Elegant-Plain Reliable-Unreliable Qualified-Unqualified Sexy-Not Sexy Sincere-Insincere Skilled-Unskilled Source: Ohanian, R (1990) Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers perceived expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness, Journal of Advertising, p39-52 The Source Attractiveness Model Advertisers have chosen celebrity on the basis of their attractiveness to gain from dual effects of celebrity status and physical appeal (Singer, 1983). Meanwhile, research showed that physically attractive endorsers are more successful at changing beliefs (Baker and Chrurchill, 1977; Chaiken, 1979; Debevec and Kernan, 1984) and generating purchase intentions (Friedman et al, 1976; Petroshius and Schuman, 1989; Petty and Cacioppo, 1980) than those unattractive individuals. Hence, McGuire (1985) conducted an empirical research to contend that the effectiveness of a message depends on similarity, familiarity and liking for an endorser. The McGuire (1985) model holds that sources that are known to, liked by, and/or similar to the consumer are attractive and, persuasive. The source attractiveness model also rests on social psychological research (McCracken, 1989). Meanwhile, Cohen and Golden (1972) suggested that physical attractiveness of an endorser determines the effectiveness of persuasive communication through a process called identification, which is assumed to occur when information from an attractive source is accepted as a result of desire to identify with such endorsers. Petty and Cacioppo (1980) conducted attractiveness of endorsers in terms of a shampoo advertisement to comprehend effectiveness of advertising message types. In 1983, Petty et al replicated the earlier study in 1980. Their findings emphasize the interaction between involvement level and endorser type. Under low-involvement conditions, the endorser type had a significant impact on attitudes towards the product even though no impact was found on behavioral intentions. With respect to recall and recognition measures, findings indicated that exposure to celebrity endorsers increased recall of the product category only under low-involvement conditions. Besides, the endorser type manipulation revealed that celebrities had marginally significant impact on brand name recall over typical citizens. Patzer (1985: p30) stated that physical attractiveness is an information cue; involves effects that are subtle, pervasive, and inescapable; produces a definite pattern of verifiable differences; and transcends culture in its effects. Patzer argues that people usually inflate their own attractiveness so that attractive endorsers should be more effective than average looking endorsers. Kahle and Homer (1985) operated celebrity physical attractiveness and likability and measured attitude and purchase intentions on the same product: Edge razors. Findings indicated that participants exposed to an attractive celebrity liked the product more than participants exposed to an unattractive celebrity. Recall for the brand was greater both in attractive and likeable celebrity conditions. However, unlikeable celebrities unexpectedly performed better on recognition measures than likeable and attractive celebrities. Meanwhile, findings proved that an attractive celebrity created more purchase intentions than unattractive celebrity, but conversely an unlikeable celebrity produced more intentions to buy the product than a likeable celebrity. Quite significantly, studies by Cabalero (1989) and Till and Brusler (1998) demonstrate that positive feelings towards advertising and products do not necessarily translate into actual behavior or purchase intentions. A possible reason for the lack of celebrity endorsers effect on intentions to purchase is that celebrity endorsement seems to work on the cognitive and affective components of attitudes rather than the behavioral components (Baker and Churchill, 1977; Fireworker and Friedman, 1977). In terms of gender impact between endorsers and target audience, Debevec and Kernan (1984) found that attractive female model generated more enhanced attitudes than attractive male models across both genders and particularly among males. Conversely, Cabalero et al (1989) found that males showed greater intentions to buy from male endorsers and females hold greater intentions to purchase from female endorsers. Furthermore, Baker and Churchill (1977) found a rather unexpected interaction among female models, product type and intentions to purchase products among male subjects. For instance, when the endorsed product was coffee, an unattractive female model created more intentions to buy the product than her attractive counterpart among males, whereas when it was perfume or aftershave, male reacted more positively to an attractive female model. However, Petroshius and Schulman (1989) found that endorsement gender had no impact on attitudes towards advertisements and no major impact on i ntentions to buy products. Consequently, based on above disparate and controversial arguments, there is no consistent and coherent direction in terms of gender interactions between endorsers and target audiences to aid practitioners. In brief, it is apparent that attractive celebrity endorsers enhance attitudes and recall towards advertising and brands than unattractive celebrity endorsers, however there is no consistent agreement in relation to creating purchase intentions, even though a few studies found that celebrities can create purchase intentions. Multiple celebrity endorsement Millions of dollars are spent per annum on celebrity endorsement contracts on the basis that source effects play an important part in convincing communications. Although traditional advertising knowledge suggests the meaning of an elite product contract with the celebrity, uniqueness comes with a high price label. As a result, it is becoming familiar for companies to share stars (Elliott, 1991; Sloan and Freeman, 1988). For example, former Chicago Bulls star Michael Jordan has endorsed products for 14 companies (Lipman and Hinge, 1991), and golfer Lee Trevino has had endorsement contracts with Cadillac, Motorola Cellular Phone, Spalding Top-Flight, and La Victoria Salsa (Shatel, 1991). Multiple product endorsements set up new questions relating to our understanding of how consumers react to celebrity endorsements. If as McCracken (1989, p.311) suggests, the celebrity endorser takes on meanings that carry from ad to ad, does endorsing multiple products affect those assigned meanings such that the consumer perceives the celebrity to be less credible and less likable (Kaikati, 1987)? Do consumers have less positive approaches toward ads and brands if multiple product endorsements are involved? What consequence do multiple product endorsements have on consumers buying aims? Does the number of products endorsed restrain the effect of frequent publicity to the celebrity endorser (Tripp, 1994)? Practical proof concerning how consumers react to multiple product endorsement is restricted, leaving unanswered issues in an important research ground. It is known the act of multiple product endorsements guides to certain impressions about celebrity. Early studies (i.e. Mowen and Brown 1981; Mowen, Brown, and Schulman 1979) suggest that simply knowing that a celebrity endorses multiple products is satisfactory to decay consumers insights of endorser honesty, as well as a brand and ad evaluations. Given a limited knowledge of how the endorsement process works (McCracken, 1989), these are clearly issues with theoretical value. The current study independently manipulated the number of exposures to a celebrity in a way different from previous studies in order to investigate the effects of continual exposure to the multiple product endorsers on consumer responses. The apply of actual stimulus is important since exposure to multiple product endorsers (vs. knowledge only) may result in effects different from multiple product endorsement effects. For example, attribution theory (Kelley, 1973) suggests that assumptions may result in consumers evaluating multiple product endorsers less favorable than single product endorsers. According to Kelley, observers identify an actors action to be characteristic when it happens in the presence of a unit and does not occur to its absence. In the case of endorsements, single product endorsements (even if viewed multiple times) compose characteristic actions since spokesperson endorses one brand and not other brands or products. In contrast, multiple product endorsements compose non distinctive actions because the endorsements take a broad view across products with the celebrity constant. Limited of the number of exposures to the endorser, this non distinctiveness may result in consumers concluding that the nature of the spokesperson was the reason for the endorsement, not the nature of product. Although multiple product endorsements (i.e. non distinctive actions) influence perceptions of the spokespersons credibility (i.e, internal attributions), the spotlight of external attributions for single product endorsements (i.e.. distinctive actions) is not obvious. Witnesses of a spokesperson who endorses only a single product may or may not trait the endorsement to the product itself (e.g. product quality). The product repr esents only one cause for the endorsement. Other potential causes for the endorsement exist (e.g., popularity of the endorser; endorsers ties to the product, company, or advertising agency; money paid to the endorser) (Tripp, 1994). In this respect, multiple product endorsements may lead to attribute suggestions about nature of the spokesperson (e.g. traits such as greediness) and, in turn, pressure such manifestations of affect as credibility and likability (Weiner, 1985). Moreover, affect may lead to comparative preferences or be short of of preferences toward associated stimulus (Bara and Ray, 1985) such as the ad or brand. Attribution theory may be used to make clear consumers assumptions about the reasons for a product endorsers support (Folkes, 1988). Commonly, when exposed to a single endorsement, consumers attribute the support to an external cause (e.g. a financial reason). However, the frequency of an action and the actions with which it co varies form the basis of many attributions (Folkes, 1988). Since a multiple product endorser is seen repeatedly and in different contexts, examination of the relationship between the number of exposures to the celebrity, endorser likability, and credibility is a critical consideration. Berlynes (1970) two-factor paradigm suggests that increased exposure to a stimulus results in a more favorable response initially due to a learning factor. At some higher number of exposures, however, a negative response (possibly due to tedium) begins to predominate. Taken together, these two theoretical ideas suggests that the number of products endorsed and the number of expo sures to the endorser may interact such that the number of products endorsed moderates the effect of number of exposures. Thus, inclusion of actual exposure allows for the first tests of any multiple product endorsement effects on both dimensions of credibility and likability beyond that due to repeated exposure to the endorser (Tripp, 1994). The product Match-Up hypothesis Forkan (1980) and Kamins (1990) conducted empirical experiment to test the Product Match-up Hypothesis, which contends that messages conveyed by celebrity image and the product message should be congruent for effective advertising. The determinant pf the match between celebrity and brand depends on the degree of perceived fit between brand such as brand name and attributes and celebrity image (Misra, 1990). Advertising a product via a celebrity who has a relatively high product congruent image leads to greater advertiser and celebrity believability (Levy, 1959; Kamins and Gupta, 1994; Kotler, 1997). Importance of proper match-up between celebrities and products has been emphasized. From practitioners perspective, a senior vice president of a leading beverage company states that celebrities are an unnecessary risk unless they are very logically related to products (Watkins, 1989). Another practitioner quoted by Bertrand and Todd (1992) argued that if there is a combination of an appropriate tie-in between the companys product and the celebritys persona, reputation or the line of work that the celebrity is in, advertisers can get both the fame and the tie-in working for them. Meanwhile, many studies report that consumers also expect congruity between celebrity endorsers perceived images and their endorsed products (Callcoat and Phillips, 1996; Ohanian, 1991; OMahony and Meenaghan, 1997). Otherwise, Evans (1988) argued that if celebrities do not have a distinct and specific relationship to the product they endorse, the use of celebrities could produce the Vampire effect which happens when the audience remembers the celebrity, but not the product or service. Meanwhile, the absence of connection between celebrity endorsers and products endorsed may lead consumers to the belief that the celebrity has been bought to endorse the product/service (Erdogan, 1999). Significantly, the proper match-up between a celebrity and a product has been based on celebrity physical attractiveness, and the match-up hypothesis predicts that attractive celebrities are more effective when endorsing products used to enhance ones attractiveness (Kahle and Homer, 1985; Kamins, 1990). Research also identifies that characteristics of a celebrity interact positively with the nature of the product endorsed (Friedman and Friedman, 1979; Kamins, 1990; Lynch and Schuler, 1994). Choi and Nora (2005), who used a cognitive approach that focuses on consumers attributions of celebrity endorsement motives, emphasized that the level of celebrity and product congruence will influence celebrity endorsement effectiveness through the process of consumer attributions of the celebritys motive for associating him or herself with the particular product and the subsequent effect of these attributions on the consumer evaluations of the endorser, the advertising, and the brand involved in the endorsement. Surprisingly, Kamins and Gupta (1994) found that the match-up between a celebrity endorser and the endorsed brand also enhances the celebrity endorsers believability and favorable attitudes (Till et al, 2006). Friedman and Friedman (1978) found that celebrity endorsers are more appropriate where product purchases involve high social and psychological risk. Meanwhile, Kamins (1989) and Kamins, et al (1989) found that celebrity endorsers were able to generate desired effects on high financial and performance risk products/services such as management consultation and computers. Conversely, Callcoat and Phillips (1996) reported that consumers are generally influenced by endorsers if products are inexpensive, low-involving and few differences are perceived among available brands. As a result, these contradictory arguments lead to the conclusion that advertising is a powerful mechanism of meaning transfer that virtually any product can be made to take any meaning (McCrackens 1987; OMahony and Meenaghan, 1997). The almost studies in terms of evaluating celebrities endorser and endorsed products/brands are using consumer samples. Only one study by Miciak and Shanklin (1994) investigation considered advertising practitioners when choosing celebrity endorsers based on a small sample including 21 agencies and 22 company practitioner. Remarkably, more recently, Erdogan et al (2001) investigated a larger sample that is the 300 largest British advertising agencies (Campaigh, 1997) to consider important celebrity characteristics from the practitioners perspective when selecting an endorser by conducting exploratory interviews and a mail survey. Their findings provide implications for both theory and practice. At the theoretical level, the research firstly shows that managers do not see celebrities as undimensional individuals such as attractive and credible when selecting celebrity endorsers, because celebrities are different unknown endorsers as they represent a variety of meanings that are drawn from the roles they assume in television, film, politics, and so on (McCracken, 1989). Secondly, managers have implicitly incorporated the findings of product match-up hypothesis research in their decision-making. On the other hand, for practitioners, as none of the advertising agencies had any written documentation regarding celebrity endorsement strategy, Erdogan et al (2001) set the criteria through providing a possible check list of factors in Table 3 below, when practitioners select celebrity endorsers. However, DeSarbo and Harshman (1985) argue that neither the source credibility and attractiveness nor the match-up research is adequate in providing a heuristic for appropriate celebrity endorser selection, although the Match-Up Hypothesis extends beyond attractiveness and credibility towards a consideration and matching of the entire image of the celebrity with the endorsed brand and the target audience. The Meaning Transfer Model McCracken (1989) organized an empirical research evaluating effectiveness of the endorser depends upon the meaning the person brings to the endorsement process in part. McCracken (1989) and Brierley (1995) pointed out that the number and variety of the meanings contained in celebrities are very large, which includes status, class, gender, and age and personality and lifestyles types, more importantly, the cultural meanings existing in a celebrity go beyond the person and are passed on to the products. Fortini-Campbell (1992) argues that products just like people have personalities, and claims that people consume brands with personality characteristics like their own or ones they aspire to possess in celebrities. Similarly, according to Fowles (1996), advertisers rationale for hiring celebrities to endorse products is that people consume images of celebrities, and advertisers hope that people will also consume products associated with celebrities. Celebrity endorsement actually is a special instance of a more general process of meaning transfer (McCracken, 1989). This process is a conventional path for the movement of cultural meaning in consumer societies through formation of celebrity image, transfer of meaning from celebrity to product, and from product to consumers. McCracken (1988) defined that meaning begins as something resident in the culturally constituted world, in the physical and social world constituted by the categories and principles of the prevailing culture. Furthe rmore, McCracken (1989) found that several instruments facilitate this transfer. Firstly, the movement of meanings from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods is accomplished by advertising and the fashion system. Then, the movement of meanings from consumer goods to the individual consumer is accomplished through the efforts of the consumers. Hence, meaning circulates in the consumer society. Besides, McCracken (1986) argued that advertising is one of the instruments to move meanings from culture, to consumers, to goods; this movement is accomplished by the efforts of promotional agencies. Similarly, Domzal and Kerman (1992) claimed that advertising is an integral part of social systems, whose function is to communicate the culturally constructed meaning of products to consumers. As the figure 1 shows, the meaning that begins in the dramatic role of the celebrity resides in the celebrity themselves in stage 1. In stage 2, this meaning is transferred when the celebrity enters into an advertisement with a product, and some of the meanings of the celebrity are now the meanings of the product. In the final stage, the meaning moves from the product to the consumer. Notably, celebrity endorsement makes a very particular contribution to each of these three stages in meaning transfer process. In sum, as McCracken (1989) suggested, the meaning transfer model presented is intended to demonstrate that the secret of the celebrity endorsement is largely cultural in nature, and that the study of the celebrity endorsement is improved by a cultural perspective. Consequently, advertisers should assess the culture that encompasses a celebrity to determine whether these meanings are feasible for brands/products in order to achieve effectiveness of the endorser. Definition of celebrities Celebrities are people who enjoy public recognition by a big share of a certain group of people. Whereas characteristic like attractiveness, amazing lifestyle or special skills are just examples and specific common characteristics cannot be observed, it can be said that within a analogous social group celebrities generally vary from the social standard and enjoy a high degree of public awareness. This is factual for classic forms of celebrities, like actors (e.g. Meg Ryan, Pierce Brosnan), models (e.g. Naomi Campbell, Gisele Buendchen), sports athletes (e.g. Anna Kournikova, Michael Schumacher), entertainers (e.g. Oprah Winfrey, Conan OBrien) and pop stars (e.g. Madonna, David Bowie) but also for less obvious groups like businessmen (e.g. Donald Trump, Bill Gates) or politicians (e.g. Rudy Giuliani, Lee Kuan Yew). Celebrities appear in public in different ways. First, they appear in public when satisfying their profession, e.g. Pete Sampras, who plays tennis in front of an audience in Wimbledon. Furthermore, celebrities appear in public by attending special celebrity events, e.g. the Academy Awards, or world premieres of movies. In addition, they are present in news, fashion magazines, and tabloids, which offer second source information on events and the private life of celebrities through mass-media channels (e.g. Fox 5 news covering Winona Ryders trial on shoplifting, InStyle). Last but not least, celebrities work as spokespersons in advertising to endorse products and services (Kambitsis et al. 2002, Tom et al. 1992). Advantages and disadvantages of celebrity endorsement strategy Potential Advantages Potential Disadvantages Preventive Tactics Assisting product  marketing and  increased attention Overshadow the brand Pre-testing and careful planning Image polishing Public controversy Buying insurance and putting  provision clauses in contracts Brand introduction Image change and  overexposure Explaining what is their role and  putting clause to restrict  endorsements for other brands Brand repositioning Image change and loss of  public recognition Examining what life-cycle stage  the celebrity is in and how long  this stage is likely to continue Underpin global  campaigns Expensive Selecting celebrity who are  appropriate for global target  audience, not because they are  hot in all market audience Source: Erdogan, B.Z (1999) Celebrity endorsement: A literature review, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol 15, p295 Mathur et al (1997) state a variety of reasons that firms use celebrity endorsers including that firms may feel that the life experiences of endorsers fit the advertising message, that the endorser has high appeal with the firms target consumer group, or that the endorsers universal appeal makes the advertising universal. Celebrity endorsement can bring out several positive effects. They are that advertisements become believable (Kamins et al, 1989), message recall is enhanced (Friedman and Friedman, 1979), recognition and perception of brand names is improved and attitudes about products with low purchase involvement are affected (Petty et al, 1983; Till et al, 2006), positive attitudes about brands results (Kamins et al, 1989), and distinct personalities and appeals for products and brands are created (McCracken, 1989; Dickenson, 1996). Moreover, celebrity endorsements are believed to generate a greater likelihood of customers choosing the endorsed brand (Heath et al, 1994; Kahle a nd Homer, 1985; Ohanian, 1991). As a result the use of celebrity endorsement is an advertising strategy that should enhance the marginal value of advertisement expenditures and create brand equity by means of the secondary association of a celebrity with a brand (Keller, 1993). Meanwhile, research indicates that celebrity endorsements can result in more favorable advertisement ratings and product evaluations (Dean and Biswas, 2001). Some of the most difficult aspects of global marketing to gasp are host countries cultural roadblocks such as time, space, language, relationships, power, risk, masculinity and femininity (Mooij, 1994; Hosfsted, 1984). Under this situation, celebrity endorsements are a powerful device by which to enter foreign markets; and celebrities with world-wide popularity can help companies break through many such roadblocks (Erdogan, 1999). On the other hand, there are also many potential disadvantages and hazards in utilizing celebrities as endorsers as a part of marketing communication strategy. Firstly, benefits of using celebrities can reverse markedly if they for example, suddenly change image, fall popularity, get into a situation of moral turpitude, lose credibility by over-endorsing or overshadow endorsed products (Cooper, 1984; Kaikati, 1987). Secondly, negative information about a celebrity endorser not only influences consumers perception of the celebrity, but also the endorsed product (Klebba and Unger, 1982; Till and Shimp, 1995). Thirdly, another common concern is that consumers will focus their attention on the celebrity and fail to notice the brand being promoted (Rossiter and Percy, 1987). Fourthly, celebrities who are blamed for negative events such as accidents can have detrimental influence on the products they endorse (Louie and Obermiller, 2002). Besides, Mowen and Brown (1981) argue that if a celebritys image ties in with many brands/ products, impact and indentify with each product may reduce since the relationship between the celebrity and a particular brand is not distinctive. This can not only compromise the value of the celebrity in the eyes of stars fans (Graham, 1989), but also can make consumers to think the real nature of endorsement that has less to do with the brand/product attributes, and more to do with generous compensation for the celebrity, leading consumers to overt doubt about their motives, so as to cause the negative influences on consumer attitudes and purchase intentions among the multiple products endorsed by celebrities (Cooper, 1984; Tripp et al, 1994). The f

Dark Energy Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dark energy what is it? Dark energy is a unknown energy said to take up 70 percent of the universe. The energy is a repulsive gravitational effect that is causing the universe to accelerate out-ward. No one knows exactly what dark energy is or where it comes from.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dark Energy is a new idea. Little is known about dark energy, yet it takes up a huge amount if the universe.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Scientist were able to show the universe was expanding at an accelerated rate by measuring the red-shift of an object by comparing the spectral lines of the elements and the spectral lines of the same elements measured in a lab. The more distant the objects that emit light the brighter the spectral lines. In 1998 scientist observed that the supernovas are becoming dimmer, which means they are getting closer instead of farther away. They were able to show that dark energy has an influence on light particles and photons. When a photon passes a galaxy it falls into the gravitational pull, and the dark energy because it repulses gravity makes the photon pass right through the galaxy with even more energy than when it entered. These findings make dark energy completely independent of the supernova observations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Astronomers have found the first direct evidence of dark energy in the afterglow of the Big Bang, the radiation caused by the Big Bang called cosmic microwave background (CMB). The cosmi...

Advertising †the Main Cause of Unhealthy Eating Habits Essay

Nowadays, the advertisement is becoming so vast. Everybody in our society watching TV or searching additional information on internet and every day we meet with advertising. Generally, advertising plays an irreplaceable role in luring people to buy food and thus contributes to unhealthy eating habits. However, advertising is not the main purpose of these unhealthy eating habits. There are others factors to buy unhealthy eating habits, such as, increasing stress of work, less time for taking a good meal. Therefore I’m in disagreement with the statement. Firstly, people every time are in a fast rhythm of life, they hasten of their work at the morning, than searching a little period of time to have a lunch and after hardworking day they hasten to their homes to have a little rest, in this regard, coming home, they gorge on the night, which has also a very bad effect on the body. So some people gradually form a habit of eating a lot of food merely to stuff their stomach when they are not really hungry. This is something like a defense response of body. I believe, nowadays, people form bad eating habits partly owing to the hurry in their daily life. The second cause of malnutrition is a wrong concept of healthy eating. Many of the girls trying to be thin restrict themselves from sweet and calorie products, but also from the products that can actually be very healthy. Accordingly, one crucial cause of unhealthy eating habits is the wrong concept of beauty in modern society rather than advertisements. In conclusion, advertising is not the main cause of unhealthy eating habits. Working stress, wrong concept of beauty and lack of time for dinners also lead to unhealthy eating habits.

US Security Border

US Security Border Background The major concern is whether to have a secure border or to allow free movement of people, goods or services across the border of the United States. This border is the longest undefended border in the world, but after the events of September 11, 2001, security measures along this border changed.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on US Security Border specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The U.S government had to review its border laws and restrictions, which led to strict rules on its border. Time for security checks across the border increased drastically, thus increasing costs for Canadian exporters. In addition, the US deadline for secure identity cards affected trade and tourism between the two countries. Objective The general objective is to determine whether or not the US should allow a secure or free border to exist with the outside world for movement of goods, people and services, based on the event s that took place in September 11, 2001 that killed many people. Hypothesis Free border may lead to increased economic and social relationship between the United States, Canada and the rest of the hemisphere through unrestricted movement of goods, people and services across its boundaries. This will ultimately improve trade between United States and the rest of the world. Introduction The US-Canada northern border controls during the whole of the 20th century experienced low-intensity, low-profile, and a low priority. Border control issues were never matters of importance in bilateral relations and trade. This minimal concern and low-profile approach to border manning was mutually convenient and tolerated and persisted into the 1990s. Rapid growth in legitimate trade flows across the border in after the NAFTA agreement undermined illegal trade, including the smuggling of drugs, cigarettes, migrants, and arms. The clandestine side of the expanding US-Canada trading relationship was n ever a topic for the national political agenda and did not turn into a necessary source of cross-border tension. However, the 9/11 attacks led to change of relationship between the US and Canada in handling the longest border between the two countries. Initially, the two countries had given that border a low priority until it gained recognition as â€Å"the longest undefended border in the world† (GAO, 2007). These events resulted into a high anxiety when the US-Canada border was a ready-made political target for those who blamed lax border controls for America’s vulnerability to terrorism (Tancredo, 2006).Advertising Looking for research paper on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Although the focus was the US-Canada border and the issue was terrorism, the new border security discourse echoed the older and more familiar drug and immigration control discourse that has characterized US border relations with Mexico (Warner, 2010). In the immediate consequence of the 9/11 attacks, the US congress ruled to add the security agents deployed along the US-Canada border, and the US sent its National Guard troops to inspect, secure and patrol at the border points of entry. In addition, the US instructed Coast Guard to stop all vessels crossing the border for inspections in order to provide escort services to the cargo ship, gas, and oil tankers. Alongside the new security enforcement officer, there were also new surveillance and security equipment. The US installed sophisticated cameras with night-vision lenses, satellite tracking system, there were also early signs of establishing a military base along the border. The security items were to detect any unauthorized access and entry through the northern border. New security measures have also been put in place on Canadian side of the line. Immediately following the terrorist attacks, Canada ordered a higher state of ale rt at border crossings. Since then, it has increased levels of security at its airports, created new funding for detection items and personnel, introduced laws to fight financing of terrorism, and frozen assets of some known terrorist groups. Tougher immigration control rules have included the introduction of a fraud-resistant resident card for new immigrants, increased detention capacity and deportation activity, greater security screening for refugee claimants, and a tightening of the visa regime. In addition to this, there is a requirement that Saudi and Malaysian visitors acquire visas before entry into Canada. The most fundamental changes in Canadian law have been the 2001 antiterrorism act, and the 2002 public safety act, which have given new surveillance and enforcement powers to police and security agencies. Not unlike their Mexican counterparts, Canadian officials have attempted to impress and appease the US with new security awareness, while at the same time repeatedly emp hasizing the importance of national sovereignty and policymaking independence and trying to avoid the impression that their policy changes confirm the US pressures and expectations upon Canada. All in all, the incentives under conditions of relations are obvious. Canada must either take stronger measures to increase border security or risk a unilateral decision by the US to harden the border access, with potentially devastating economic consequences to Canada.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on US Security Border specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Economic consequences The significant economic costs from any security-related disruptions in border flows became immediately noticeable after the 9/11 attacks. US border inspectors became highly alert, defined as a â€Å"sustained, intensive, antiterrorism operation†. Consequently, this almost instantly created enormous chaos at the border, given that Canada an d the United States conduct US$1.3 billion in trade per day, most of which come by trucks across the border. Some 40,000 commercial shipments and 300,000 people cross the 4,000 mile-long US-Canada border daily (Andreas, 2005). According to study findings, in the days after the attacks, delays for trucks transporting cargo across the border increased from one or two minutes to between 10 and 15 hours, stranding parts, shipments, and perishable goods. Trucks parked up to 36 kilometers at the Ambassador Bridge linking Windsor and Detroit. This is the single and worlds busiest border crossing point. About 27 percent of US-Canada trade crosses this bridge. The border enforcement and activities hit the auto industry hard. Many automobile companies, which manufacture their parts in Canada, and ship them to the US assembly plants on a cost-efficient, and timely manner became vulnerable to security measures at the border. For instance, the 9/11 attacks resulted into shortage of vehicles part in the US. As a result, Ford shut its engine plant in Windsor and Detroit vehicle parts. Meanwhile, as trade from both countries experienced massive losses from the sudden border security crackdown, Canada experienced higher losses than the US due to such economic disruptions. The US only has about 25 percent of its export to Canada. On the other side, Canada is responsible for 87 percent of export bound to the US. Most significant is that a greater percentage of Canadas foreign trade depends on the US economy. In this regard, Canada derives about 40 percent of GDP from its exports to the US whereas the US gets a mere 2.5 percent of its GDP from its exports to Canada. Although many have pointed to the cross-border interdependence of the automobile industry as evidence of mutual vulnerability to border shut-downs, there is little reason to believe that the industry would not eventually respond to continued border disruptions. However, removing the Canadian-based automobile industry means removing the most significant source of to the US.Advertising Looking for research paper on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The two countries are no longer able to ignore the border as was the case before 9/11 attacks. The US and Canadian policymakers are now ambitiously trying to protect the longest undefended border in the world†. They are aiming to create a border that performs as a better security barrier, and as a business-friendly economic bridge at the same time. Creating a low risk border In order to facilitate â€Å"low risk† border crossing, the US and Canada have initiated a program along the border that allows frequent travelers who have undergone background checks quickly cross through designated border ports of entry. Those enrolled in the program receive a computerized photo identification card that can be electronically scanned at border crossings on dedicated lanes. Both countries are working on a similar program, the free and secure trade program, which will ease truck congestion at border ports of entry. Canada and the United States are also launching a joint program targe ting air travelers. This program includes an evaluation of iris recognition biometric technology at Canadas two busiest airports. At least, we can identify three potential future US-Canada border control trajectories. At one extreme, there could be a substantial unilateral US hardening of the border, with security essentially trumping all other considerations. This is an equivalent of imposing a security tariff on all cross-border movements. These are security measures not evident in Europe (Boswell, 2007). The idea of creating a secure and free border for traders has been difficult for both Canadian authority and business class alike. Canada must refocus and harmonize its multilateral policy in order to share security information with the US for a secure border point. This agenda largely depends on Canadian business interests with the US (Jo Cureton 2011). Most Canadian officials, on the other hand, favor more incremental and piecemeal border security measures rather than embracing an entirely new border security paradigm (Bigo, 2002). Many in Canada consider this solution to handling border security as Americanization, with Canada simply adopting US policy approaches and preferences. When we take current trends into account, the most likely scenario is a compromised position somewhere in the middle (Huysmans, 1998). This is a continuation of initiatives involving mixtures of the enhanced border security collaborations and a partial policy convergence. This includes further extensions of border controls beyond physical borderline and an intensive utilization of new high-technology cargo tracking systems, inspection technologies, and traffic management strategies. Even before the 9/11 attacks, the US had plans to build technological advanced and control system. However, after the attacks, the US has increased both pace and ambition of constructing the project. These initiatives could eventually produce a de facto continental security perimeter, but without the formal trappings and highly institutionalized and bureaucratized systems (GAO, 2000). It is not at all clear that it would withstand the fallout from multiple terrorist incidents, especially if critics can directly link such incidents to a perceived failure of the US-Canada border controls. Conclusion Tensions and conflicts over border control issues have long been defining features of US-Mexico relations. The same is now increasingly true of the US-Canada relations. Before the 9/11 attacks, the US-Canada border control-related issues always took a low-profile, low-visibility, and depoliticized manner out of the public and media eye. However, after the 9/11 attacks, border control matters have become much more high-profile, visible, and politicized than previously conceived. The main worry of the US is that the expansive commercial cross-border networks and routes (both legal and illegal) can now be exploited to smuggle terrorists and weapons of mass destruction into the United Sta tes. Therefore, the US has elevated all its traditional border law enforcement issues to security issues. One consequence is that travelers entering the United States from Canada who once viewed the experience as little more than passing through a normal border now view it differently. The US scrutiny has become more intensive, less predictable, more time-consuming and has become uncomfortable border crossing process especially among Canadian immigrants. A part from travelers, the trade between the US and Canada had suffered substantial losses. The activities at the border mainly affected the automobile industries which relied on imports from Canada. At the same time, Canada was the main loser in this process. This is because most of its foreign exchange and exports go to the US. The US has created pressure and expectations due to border relations that Canada will help it achieve its border control objectives and in new Canadian policy measures which simultaneously pacify Washington and signal maintenance of Canadian sovereignty, and policy autonomy. Some critics argue that if the US relies on Canada in securing its border, then the challenges the US experienced with the Mexico may recur. The US must protect its border with Canada and at the same time, allow for free flows of legal trade, but must always be alert of security threats and illegal trades. References Andreas, P. (2005). The Mexicanization of the US-Canada border. International Journal, 12 (4), 449-462. Bigo, D. (2002). Security and Immigration: Towards a Critique of the Governmentality of Unease. Alternatives, 27, 63-92. Boswell, C. (2007). Migration Control in Europe After 9/11: Explaining the Absence of Securitization. Journal of Common Market Studies, 45(3), 589-610. GAO. (2007). Border Security: Security Vulnerabilities at Unmanned and Unmonitored U.S. Border Locations (GAO-07-884T) Washington, D.C. GAO. (2000). Managing for Results: Barriers to Interagency Coordination (GAO/GGD-00-106) Washin gton, D.C. Huysmans, J. (1998). Security! What Do You Mean? From Concept to Thick Signifier. European Journal of International Relations, 4(2), 226-255. Jo Cureton, E. (2011). A mission on the border ten years after 9/11. Web. Tancredo, T. (2006). In Mortal Danger: The Battle for Americas Border and Security. Los Angeles: WND Books. Warner, J. A. (2010). U.S. Border Security: A Reference Handbook (Contemporary World Issues). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.